| Back | Home | The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Philip Schaff Vol. VIII: abridged and edited for clarity.

• Life of Œcolampadius till 1522
• Beginnings of the Reformation in Basel
• Early Work of Œcolampadius in Basel
• Final Success in 1529
• Controversy over the Lord's Supper
• Closing Work of Œcolampadius

Life of Œcolampadius till 1522

Johannes Œcolampadius (Johann Heussgen, Hussgen, Hauschein, in the South German dialect equivalent to " candlestick," whence the grecized form of his name) was born at Weinsberg (25 m. n. of Stuttgart), in the Palatinate, 1482; i. at Basel Nov. 24, 1531. He began his studies in Heilbronn and continued them in Bologna, where he devoted himself to jurisprudence. But his aversion to law induced him to leave Bologna and study theology at Heidelberg (1499), where he occupied himself with the study of Thomas Aquinas, of the mystics, such as Richard of St. Victor, and of later theologians like Gerson. His inherent mysticism was thus intensified, and he remained a pious and loyal Romanist. In 1503 he took his bachelor's degree and soon afterward became tutor of the younger sons of the Elector Philip the Upright in Heidelberg. But the life of the court displeased him and he longed to return to the study of theology. The facts of his life from 1503 to 1512 are still veiled in obscurity. It is known only that he departed from the court of the elector and accepted a prebend at Weinsberg. A prebend was established there by the council Apr. 8, 1510, confirmed by the bishop June 9, meanwhile Œcolampadius had been presented, Apr. 3, by Duke Ulrich. The same year he was in Stuttgart to hear Reuchlin and published at Freiburg some sermons which he had preached in Weinsberg. Then he went to Tübingen, where he became intimate with Melanchthon. In 1514 he seems to have returned to Heidelberg, where he associated with Brenz and Capito. In 1515 he was called to Basel as preacher by Bishop Christoph of Utenheim, where he met Erasmus and assisted him in the publication of his Greek New Testament. They formed an intimate friendship, and Erasmus exercised a considerable influence upon the young preacher. In 1516 Œcolampadius lectured at the University of Basel on Obadiah, Ephesians, and the " Sentences " of Lombard. But after a short time he returned to Weinsberg to attend to his prebend and at the same time pursued private studies at Heidelberg. In 1518 he was again in Basel assisting Erasmus in the second edition of his New Testament. At this time he pursued the study of Greek grammar and of Jerome's translation of the Bible, lecturing at the same time at the university. In December, 1518, he received a call as preacher to the principal church in Augsburg, where the first events of the Reformation had made a deep impression upon the citizens. Œcolampadius found himself greatly oppressed by these excitements and would have liked return to his studies; but he remained loyal to his position, especially after it had become clear to him that Luther spoke the truth. Luther's sermons on the Ten Commandments and his theses moved Œcolampaiius to adopt the new teachings. But in 1520 he suddenly startled his friends by entering the monastery of Altenmünster near Augsburg, in which action he was following out his natural leaning toward mysticism and his deep-rooted sympathy with the ideals of monastic life. In a treatise of 1515 he had exalted those who from love of perfection renounce marriage and in Basel had given offense to his humanistic friends by his predilection for the mysterious elements in the Roman cult and for the ascetic life. But on entering the monastery, he reserved to himself the right to live according to the word of God and to leave if he found it necessary. In fact, his dissatisfaction with the old conditions increased. In his sermon on the Lord's Supper he gave up the doctrine of transubstantiation; the sacrifice of the mass was for him only a memorial, not a repetition of the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross; he also defended the administration of the Lord's Supper in both kinds; while the institution of confession he tried to save by its transformation in the Evangelical sense. His treatises and sermons became continually more Evangelical, and he openly expressed his admiration for Luther. He left the monastery in 1522 and accepted in April from Franz von Sickingen the position of chaplain at the castle of Ebernburg. There he took his first step as a Reformer by reading mass in German and preaching on week-days in the same language, affirming that the Church must he reformed on the basis of the Word of God. But he did not feel at ease in Ebernburg and in November, 1522, gladly accepted an invitation of Cratander to come to Basel, where the work of his life was awaiting him.

Beginnings of the Reformation in Basel

Œcolampadius was not the originator of the Reformation in Basel. On his arrival at Basel the fundamental basis of the old order had already been shaken. it was his special merit that by his powerful and impressive sermons, by his moderation and considerateness, and especially by his spiritual clearness and determination the reformatory movement of Basel, which at this time was strongly intermingled with political motives, was transformed into a religious movement. When Basel joined the Swiss federation (1501), the example of the Swiss democracies induced the citizens to change their political conditions. So far the city had been ruled exclusively by the nobility. After their democratic reforms, the citizens shook off the secular power of the bishop, and after these political changes there was no obstacle to the free development of the Reformation. Capito was the first who was active for the cause in Basel, beginning with the overthrow of the order of pericopes. Unfortunately he left Basel in 1519, but he left results. In Wilhelm Röubli, preacher at St. Alban's, there appeared a Reformer of a different type, who in 1521 began to preach against the mass, purgatory, worship of saints, and other abuses of the Roman Church, and with success to hold before the people Christ crucified. On Corpus Christi he ordered a Bible to be carried before the procession, with the inscription, "The Bible, that is true holiness, everything else is dead men's bones." Thereupon the priests accused him before the bishop, who, because of the excitement, referred the matter to the council, while the populace vehemently demanded the acquittal of the preacher. The council in great alarm yielded, but, owing to the intrigues of the clergy, Röubli was banished in 1522, though not till he had inflamed the souls of the people and opened their hearts to the Evangelical truth. After him, the sermons of Johann Lathard of the Franciscan monastery and of Wolff Wissenburg, preacher at the hospital, exercised a lasting influence. Hence, when Œcolampadius came to Basel, he found it already the center of an Evangelical movement from which proceeded a great mass of literature.

Early Work of Œcolampadius in Basel

In Œcolampadius the movement received a leader. He was at first without a position, but toward the end of 1522 he became unsalaried vicar to Antonius Zanker, preacher at St. Martin's. In 1523 the council made him and Konrad Pellican lecturers on Holy Scripture at the university; but the anti-Evangelical university did not recognize them, and they were compelled to lecture outside of the academic halls. The university had become more and more the stronghold of the old religion and even Erasmus was cold and indifferent. But clergy and laity thronged to hear the lectures of Œcolampadius. Luther was greatly elated over his success, but at this time Œcolampadius came into terms of friendship with Zwingli, who was much nearer to him than Luther, and the natural consequence was his dependence upon Zwingli. At the end of 1522 the university made an effort to end the crisis, and a debate was proposed which did not eventuate. At the instigation of Zwingli a disputation was held in Zurich which greatly furthered the cause of the Reformed in the whole of Switzerland. Œcolampadius felt so strengthened that he, too, in 1523 drew up four theses for a public disputation and defended them in the presence of large crowds. His first sermons so swayed the people that, soon after he entered his position, various ceremonies were omitted, priests married, and the people with the clergy split into two sharply opposed parties. The majority of the town clergy attacked Œcolampadius violently, but the council took a favorable attitude. In 1523 it issued its first reformatory mandate, "the first document of the supremacy of the State over the Church in which ordered the free preaching of the Gospel, but did not involve express assent to the Reformation. In 1524 a disputation took place, dealing with the marriage of priests, which was publicly defended by Stephen Stör, a secular priest, who had married. Œcolampadius took part, but held that celibacy had advantages in that an unmarried priest could better devote himself to his duties. The Reformed again won the victory. About the same time another disputation took place at the instigation of Farel, who had reached Basel as a fugitive. This disputation was also opposed by the university, and its success added new strength to the Evangelical party. Œcolampadius now became preacher at St. Martin's. The German language was used in baptism, the Lord's Supper was administered in both Latin and German, and all unprofitable ceremonies were abolished. In 1526 German church song was introduced. In 1525 the Catholic estates of Switzerland made an energetic effort to suppress the Reformation by sending messengers to Basel to invoke the aid of the city against the Reformation in Zurich, but the councilors refused, appealing to their relations with the federation. Thus peace was secured for several years, and the Swiss Reformation was saved. But the rebellion of the peasants inspired the defenders of the old faith with new hopes. Protests were raised against the radical reforms of Œcolampadius, even from the side of the Reformed, and the council, alarmed by these protests, asked the opinion of Erasmus. The latter advised them to refer the matter to the pope. The rebellious peasants had occupied the Sundgau, Alsace, Breisgau, the Black Forest, and a part of the canton of Basel, and marched before the very doors of Basel. Thanks to the unanimous attitude of its population, the city was saved, and a treaty was made with the peasants. Roman Catholics held the reformation of Œcolampadius chargeable for these events, and he was made responsible for the radicalism of the Anabaptists who greatly embarrassed the political-ecclesiastical movement in Basel.

Final Success in 1529

In the beginning, Œcolampadius like Zwingli had many points of contact with them, especially as many of them had been zealous and able adherents of the Reformation. He tried to deal with them in a friendly way. For a time be went even so far as to consider the baptism of children an open question, but after a private disputation with the Anabaptists at his residence in Aug., 1525, he advocated the traditional doctrine. The controversy on the doctrine of the Lord's Supper also penetrated to Basel. Originally Œcolampadius agreed with Carlstadt on this doctrine, incurring thereby the displeasure not only of the Romanists, but also of the council. The works of Carlstadt were forbidden, and dissensions arose among the clergy so that Zwingli had to admonish them to live in concord. For the defense of his standpoint Œcolampadius published in Aug., 1626, his treatise De verborum Domini "hoc est corpus meum" . . . expositio. This moderate treatise led to no agreement, but rather sharpened the contrast, and the literary dispute assumed a violent character. Œcolampadius called Luther the Saxon idol. A commission consisting of Erasmus, Bär (Ursus), Cantiuncula, and Amerbach, instituted by the council to examine the book of Œcolampadius, rejected it, while the volume amused opposition outside of Basel. Œcolampadius remained firm in spite of continual attacks by the newly elected Bishop Marius and of gains by the Roman party in the Swiss federation. The Catholic estates of Switzerland aimed a blow at the Reformed by the announcement of a disputation to be held at Baden, a few miles from Basel. It had been prepared in such a way that the victory of the Catholics seemed secure. Zwingli was not present, and Haller of Bern did not speak convincingly, and all seemed to depend upon Œcolampadius who was in daily communication with Zwingíi. At the end of the disputation ten voted for Œcolampadius and eighty-two for Eck. But the victory of the Roman was only apparent, and their hopes of suppressing the Reformation were not fulfilled; the Council of Basel did not give up the established reforms, and even made further changes, decreeing in 1527 that participation in the mass should be left to each individual. But the impatient populace had no sympathy with the slow procedure of the council and demanded the formal introduction of the Reformation. Its introduction in Bern in 1528 greatly excited the Basel population, and on Good Friday and Easter Monday they invaded the churches and destroyed the pictures. The culprits were imprisoned, but the people peremptorily demanded their release. The council ordered the removal of the pictures, but the friends of the Reformation were not satisfied with this action; they wished a uniform regulation of all religious affairs. At Christmas, 1528, there occurred a new insurrection of the citizens. The Roman Catholics armed themselves, and the Reformed also prepared for defense. Œcolampadius dreaded the outbreak of a civil war and asked Zwingli to mediate. Ambassadors went from Zurich, Bern, Schaffhausen, Mühlhausen, and Strasburg in order to settle the disputes and hinder the shedding of blood. The Roman Catholics sent also their envoys. The ambassadors of Zurich and Bern proposed a disputation to take place on Whitsunday(Pentecost), 1529. This proposition was unanimously adopted at a convention of over 3,000 citizens on Jan. 6, 1629. But when the council, contrary to its former attitude, continued to place obstacles in the way of the Reformation, a general uprising of the people occurred in February, 1529. They vehemently demanded the removal of the Romanist members of the council and of their friends among the clergy. The council at first hesitated, but when the threatening attitude of the people increased, it complied with their demands. On the next day the populace stormed the churches and monasteries and destroyed the pictures. Under the pressure of these events the council ordered the removal of all pictures and the abolition of the mass. Erasmus, Glareanus, Bär, and many citizens left the city. On Feb. 14, 1529, the first Evangelical church service was held in the cathedral and thus the Reformation at Basel was at last firmly established. Simon Grynæus and Sebastian Munster were called to the university. Œcolampadius was chosen artistes of the clergy and first preacher of the cathedral and in 1531 resumed his lectures. But his chief activity consisted in the regulation of church and school affairs. With his cooperatión there appeared on Apr. 1, 1529, the new church order, the constitution of the Reformed Church of Basel.

Controversy over the Lord's Supper

The reformatory movement of Basel was fortunately completed before the crisis in the fierce struggles concerning the Lord's Supper. In conformity with his treatise of 1525 Œcolampadius stood for the so-called tropical interpretation, with the single modification that he did not look for the trope in the copula est like Zwingli, but in the term corpus, which he explained as figura corporis, "the figure or sign of my body"; and he rejected the assumption of a corporeal participation on the basis of John 6. He was severely attacked for his symbolical conception by Luther, Brenz, and Pirkheimer. Luther wrote against him and Zwingli his polemical treatise, Dass die Worte Christi . . . noch feststehen, wider die Schwarmgeister (1527), in which both are designated as irretrievably lost and accused of the sin against the Holy Ghost. The vehement invectives and irritation of spirit between the adversaries seemed to leave little hope of harmony. But the Colloquy of Marburg in Oct., 1529, showed that there was a great and general desire for peace. Œcolampadius especially showed himself obliging and reconcilable. He had zealously aided Butzer's efforts for union, and he manifested the same spirit in the negotiations at Marburg. While an agreement seemed likely on all other points, Luther was irreconcilable on the doctrine of the Lord's Supper. Zwingli and Œcolampadius made many concessions; they even conceded that for the believers Christ is really present and consumed in the Lord's Supper, but they could not consent to Luther's additional sentence that he is eaten with the mouth and present in his body. The colloquy of Marburg did not end the eucharistic controversies. Luther continued his literary assaults. But still Œcolampadius did not give up hope of a final union. On Sept. 4, 1530, there took place a conference between Capito, Zwingli, and Megander at Zurich for the purpose of drawing up a confession in which they attempted a still closer approach to the Lutheran doctrine. The new formula of union emphasized the real and sacramental presence in the Lord's Supper "for the pure spirit, but not united in the bread or with the bread." Under the pressure of the hostile attitude of the emperor Luther showed himself at last willing to enter an alliance with the Swiss, but this time it was Zwingli who opposed the union on the basis of the new formula which seemed to him too vague and ambiguous, and he was not willing to curtail the truth at the price of political union. Once more, in 1531, Œcolampadius made an effort at reconciliation by advocating the joining of the Schmalkald League and the acceptation of the Tetrapolitana, but Bern and Zurich refused. Thus all sincere efforts for union on the part of Œcolampadius were without success; only the bond with the theologians of Strasburg had become closer. The chief merit of Œcolampadius in these controversies lies in the fact that as a theologian he defended bravely and with good reasons the doctrine of Zwingli. It was reserved for Calvin to accomplish the union not so much of the disputing parties as of the two essential factors in both theories.

Closing Work of Œcolampadius

After the disputation of Baden (1526) Œcolampadius stood alongside of Zwingli as a leader of the Evangelicals in Switzerland and was entrusted with the leadership of their ecclesiastical affairs. In 1531 he introduced the new Reformed church order in Ulm. In the mean time his fame had spread abroad. The oppressed Waldenses of France sent their ambassadors to confer with him. His opinion was asked concerning the divorce of Henry VIII. Negotiations with the Anabaptists and Antitrinitarians embittered the last years of his life, and under his grave responsibilities his health broke down at a comparatively early age. The proper relation between State and Church became a burning question for the new Church since it had been reproached by the Anabaptista on account of lack of discipline. Deviating from Zwingli's theory of state supervision, Œcolampadius introduced the ecclesiastical ban with the execution of which he charged the clergy and subsequently a special board consisting of members of the council and of clergymen. He tried to introduce this institution in all Reformed churches at a convention in Aarau (1530), but Bern and Strasburg as well as Zwingli were decidedly opposed to it. The introduction of the measure in Basel aroused popular opposition, but Œcolampadius did not desist from his plan. Its rigorous execution and the inconsiderate procedure against men of different opinions occasioned many a bitter comment. Tradition regards Œcolampadiius as the most lenient among the Swiss Reformers. This impression was probably called forth by his efforts for union, but in reality he was firm, his rigor at times bordering on intolerance. It must not be forgotten, however, that the time of the Reformation needed sternness of character to hold with firm grip the results achieved and to subject the liberated people to the discipline of the Gospel so that the Reformation might not degenerate into a revolution. In this respect Œcolampadius manifested no mediating attitude.

(W. Hadorn.)